INTRODUCTION Congenital anomalies (CAs) represent one ofthe main cause of foetal death, infant mortalityand morbidity, and long-term disability.CAs have been object of systematic registrationactivity for a long-time in manygeographical areas in Europe and worldwide.CAs are often associated with disabilities ofdifferent types and severity, including the developedCountries worldwide. According tothe World Health Organization (WHO), eachyear approximately 3,2 million of childrenworldwide are born with a CA and approximately300,000 newborns with a diagnosis ofbirth defect die within the first 28 days of life.In Europe, CAs are the leading cause of perinatalmortality: the European Surveillanceof Congenital Anomalies (EUROCAT) networkestimated a perinatal mortality associatedwith CAs of 9.2 per 10,000 births in2008-2012. In Italy, the Ministry of Health estimatesthat, on the average of 500,000 birthseach year, about 25,000 present at least oneCA. Moreover, approximately 25% of infantmortality is due to CAs and about 50%of infant mortality is attributable to perinatalmorbidity, almost always of prenatal origin.Regarding long-term survival, a recent populationstudy conducted between 1985 and2003 in the UK estimated a 20.5-year survivalof 85.5% of children born with at least oneCA. According to the Centre for Disease Controland Prevention, approximately 3.3% oflive births in the United States have a severebirth defect. Since CAs represent a significantpublic health issue, an effective primary preventionstrategy should be a priority for publicpolicies and healthcare system.Regarding aetiology, although in many casesthe cause is still unknown, it has been hypothesizedthat CAs may be developed duringthe first trimester of pregnancy as a result ofhereditary polygenic defects or of a gene-environmentinteraction. The aetiology is predominantlymultifactorial, caused by complexinteractions between genes and environment,which modify the normal embryo-foetal development,especially during the organogenesisphase.In particular, environmental factors (e.g.,chemical toxicants, infection agents, maternaldisease, and exogenous factors) can havepreconceptional mutagenic action, postconceptionalteratogenic effects, periconceptionalendocrine disruption or epigenetic action.Regarding genetic causes, there are geneticchromosomalaberrations or dysgeneses. Furthermore,socioeconomic factors affect reproductivehealth by differentiating the exposureto the other risk factors as well as the access toprevention measures.In recent years, the importance of the environmentas a major factor of reproductive risk hasbeen highlighted.An individual may be exposed to pollutantspresent in the workplace and the populationmay be exposed to multiple sources of environmentalcontamination of water, soil, andair matrices. Pregnant women and the developingfoetus are particularly sensitive to the effectsof environmental exposure.OBJECTIVEThe aim of the present working paper is toproduce an updated review of the epidemiologicalevidence on the risk of CAs associatedwith environmental exposures, socioeconomic,and main individual risk factors, such ascigarette smoking and alcohol consumption,according to the approach proposed by Pirastuet al. 2010 in the framework of the SENTIERIProject (the Italian Epidemiological Studyof Residents in National Priority ContaminatedSites).DESIGN AND METHODSLiterature search was carried out in PubMed,following the SENTIERI project criteria toevaluate evidence, by selecting articles in Englishor Italian language published from 2011 to2016 regarding human studies. For this review,descriptive and analytical epidemiological studies(cohort, case-control, cross-sectional, andecological), systematic reviews, and metanalysesreporting association estimates between theoutcome and at least one of the risk factors wereselected.As in Pirastu et al., the sources of environmentalexposure have been classified intofour macrocategories: industries, mines, landfills,and incinerators. The sources of individualexposure considered were: active andpassive cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption,socioeconomic status (SES), occupationaland environmental exposures relatedto air pollutants from vehicular traffic only.The obtained results were assessed accordingto the evaluation criteria on the epidemiologicalevidence related to the association betweenthe outcome and exposures predefined andpublished by the SENTIERI working group(WG). For the evidence assessment, the SENTIERIWG criteria favoured firstly primarysources and quantitative metanalyses, secondly,consistency among sources. The evaluationof the epidemiological evidence for the associationbetween outcome and the exposure hasbeen classified into three categories: sufficient(S), limited (L), inadequate (I).RESULTSIndustries: during the period under review,six single studies evaluating the associationbetween industrial sites exposure and therisk of CAs were found. The epidemiologicalevidence of association between outcomeand exposure has been considered limited.Mines: from the bibliographic research, threesingle studies investigating possible cause-effectrelationship between maternal residentialproximity to mines and the risk of CAs havebeen collected providing inadequate epidemiologicalevidence.Landfills: during the period under review, onesystematic review and one literature review evaluatingthe causal associations between maternalresidential proximity to landfills and CAs wereidentified. The epidemiological evidence is limitedand concerns almost exclusively sites containingindustrial or hazardous waste.Incinerators: a systematic review has been selected;it concludes that the evidence for the associationbetween maternal residential proximityto incinerators and CAs are inadequate.Cigarette smoking: the literature search identifiedeight systematic reviews with metanalysis,five multicentre studies, and ten singlestudies assessing the causal association betweenmaternal and/or paternal exposure to smokingand the risk of CAs in the offspring providingsufficient evidence for a causal associationbetween maternal exposure to cigarette smokeand the risk of congenital heart defects, oro-facialclefts, neural tube defects, and gastrointestinalmalformations.Alcohol: three systematic reviews with metanalysis,two metanalyses, one multicentrestudy, and four single studies were collectedfor the period under review. The acquiredliterature has provided limited epidemiologicalevidence for associations between alcoholconsumption and CAs in the nervous system,particularly for anencephaly and spina bifida.Socioeconomic status: the evidence of an associationwith socioeconomic factors was inadequatedue to an insufficient number ofstudies selected during the period under consideration.Occupational exposure: the literature searchcollected one metanalysis, eight multicentrestudies, and five single studies. The epidemiologicalevidence for associations between paternaloccupational exposure to solvents and neuraltube defects and between maternal pesticide exposureand gold-facial clefts were judged limited.Air pollution: two systematic reviews withmetanalyses, two multicentre studies, and ninesingle studies were selected by literature search;the epidemiological evidence for a causal associationbetween air pollutants exposure and therisk of CAs is still to be considered limited.CONCLUSIONSFor future epidemiological studies, a better exposureassessment, using in particular moreaccurate spatial measurements or models, astandardized case definition, a larger sampleand more accurate control of the recognized orpresumed confounding variables are needed.
INTRODUZIONE Le anomalie congenite (AC) sono consideratetra le principali cause di mortalità neonatale e infantile, nonché tra le principali fonti didisabilità a lungo periodo. Le AC sono da lungotempo oggetto di attività sistematica di registrazionein molte aree geografiche, in Europae a livello internazionale. Queste patologie,oltre a essere associate molto spesso a disabilitàdi varia natura e gravità, sono responsabili diuna quota considerevole di mortalità infantileanche nei Paesi sviluppati.Secondo l'organizzazione mondiale della sanità(OMS), le AC colpiscono nel mondo circa3,2 milioni di nati per anno e circa 300.000neonati affetti da AC muoiono ogni anno entroi primi 28 giorni di vita.In Europa, le AC rappresentano la principalecausa di morte perinatale: il network europeodi sorveglianza delle anomalie congenite"European Surveillance of Congenital Anomalies"(EUROCAT) ha registrato una mortalitàperinatale del 9,2 per 10.000 nati nel periodo2008-2012.Il Ministero della salute stima che, in Italia,su 500.000 nati mediamente ogni anno, circa25.000 presentino almeno un'AC. Semprein Italia, circa il 25% della mortalità infantileè dovuta ad AC e circa il 50% a stati morbosiperinatali, quasi sempre di origine prenatale.Per quanto riguarda la sopravvivenza a lungotermine, un recente studio di popolazionecondotto nel Regno Unito ha stimato una sopravvivenzaa 20 anni dell'85,5% per i bambininati con almeno una AC tra il 1985 e il2003. Secondo il Centre for Disease Controland Prevention, approssimativamente il 3,3Þi nati vivi negli Stati Uniti ha un grave difettocongenito.Il costo sociale ed economico delle AC è, dunque,elevato e la loro prevenzione primaria rappresentauna priorità di sanità pubblica.Riguardo all'eziologia, si ipotizza che le ACpossano essere originate durante il primo trimestredi gravidanza come risultato di difettipoligenici ereditari o di un'interazionegene-ambiente, ma in molti casi la causa è ancorasconosciuta. L'eziologia è prevalentementemultifattoriale, determinata da complesseinterazioni tra geni e ambiente che alteranoil corretto sviluppo embrio-fetale, soprattuttonella fase di organogenesi. In particolare,i fattori ambientali (sostanze chimiche, agentiinfettivi, malattie della madre e altri fattoriesogeni) possono avere azione mutagena preconcezionale,azione teratogena postconcezionale,azione d'interferenza endocrina e azioneepigenetica. Per le cause genetiche, si tratta diaberrazioni genico-cromosomiche o di disgenesie.I fattori socioeconomici agiscono, invece,differenziando l'esposizione ai fattori dirischio e l'accesso alle misure di prevenzione.Negli ultimi anni e stata messa in evidenzal'importanza dell'ambiente come uno dei maggiorifattori di rischio riproduttivo.L'individuo può essere esposto a inquinantipresenti sul luogo di lavoro, ma la stessa popolazionelocale può essere esposta a molteplicifonti di contaminazione attraverso le matriciambientali acqua, suolo e aria. La donna ingravidanza e il feto in via di sviluppo sono particolarmentevulnerabili agli effetti delle aggressioniambientali.OBIETTIVOLo scopo principale di questo lavoro è di produrreuna revisione aggiornata delle evidenzeepidemiologiche sul rischio di AC associatoalle esposizioni ambientali e ai fattori di rischiosocioeconomici e individuali, quali il fumo disigaretta e il consumo di alcol, in linea con ilmetodo utilizzato da Pirastu et al. 2010 nell'ambitodel Progetto SENTIERI.DISEGNO E METODOLa ricerca bibliografica è stata eseguita suPubMed selezionando gli articoli in inglese ein italiano di studi condotti sull'uomo e pubblicatinel periodo 2011-1016. Per la rassegna,sono stati selezionati sia gli articoli originali distudi descrittivi e analitici epidemiologici (dicoorte, caso-controllo, trasversali ed ecologici)sia le revisioni sistematiche e le metanalisi chepresentavano stime di associazione tra l'esito(AC) e almeno uno dei fattori di rischio considerati.Come in Pirastu et al., le fonti di esposizioneambientale sono state classificate in quattromacrocategorie: industrie, miniere, discarichee inceneritori. Le fonti di esposizione individualeconsiderate sono state: il fumo di sigarettaattivo e passivo, il consumo di alcol, lo statosocioeconomico (SES), le esposizioni occupazionalie ambientali riferite ai soli inquinantiatmosferici da traffico veicolare.I risultati ottenuti sono stati valutati secondoi criteri di valutazione sull'evidenza epidemiologicarelativa all'associazione tra l'esito e leesposizioni stabiliti e pubblicati dal gruppo dilavoro SENTIERI.I criteri messi a punto dal gruppo di lavoroSENTIERI per la valutazione dell'evidenzaepidemiologica privilegiano le fonti primarie ela metanalisi quantitativa e, in seconda istanza,la coerenza tra le fonti. L'evidenza epidemiologicarelativa all'associazione tra esito ed esposizioneè stata classificata in tre categorie: sufficiente(S), limitata (L) e inadeguata (I).RISULTATIIndustrie: nel periodo in esame sono stati raccoltisei studi singoli che esaminano l'associazionetra esposizione a siti industriali e rischiodi AC. L'evidenza epidemiologica relativaall'associazione tra esito ed esposizione è daconsiderarsi limitata.Miniere: dalla ricerca bibliografica sono statiraccolti tre studi singoli che valutano la possibilerelazione causa-effetto tra la prossimità residenzialematerna a miniere e l'insorgenza di AC,fornendo evidenze epidemiologiche inadeguate.Discariche: nel periodo in esame sono stateindividuate una revisione sistematica e unarassegna relative a studi che valutano le associazionicausali tra la prossimità residenzialematerna a discariche e le AC. Le evidenze epidemiologicherisultano limitate e riguardanoquasi esclusivamente siti contenenti rifiuti industrialio pericolosi.Inceneritori: è stata individuata una revisionesistematica che conclude che le evidenze relativeall'associazione tra la prossimità residenzialematerna a inceneritori e l'insorgenza di AC risultanoinadeguate.Fumo: la ricerca bibliografica ha individuatootto revisioni sistematiche con metanalisi,cinque studi multicentrici e dieci studi singoliche hanno esaminato l'associazione causaletra l'esposizione materna e/o paterna al fumoe il rischio di AC nella prole fornendo evidenzesufficienti sulla presenza di un'associazionecausale tra l'esposizione materna al fumodi sigaretta e il rischio di cardiopatie congenite,schisi oro-facciali, difetti del tubo neurale emalformazioni gastrointestinali.Alcol: nel periodo in esame sono state raccolte3 revisioni sistematiche con metanalisi, duemetanalisi, uno studio multicentrico e tre studisingoli. La letteratura esaminata fornisceevidenze epidemiologiche limitate di associazionetra il consumo di alcol e le AC del sistemanervoso, in particolare l'anencefalia e laspina bifida.Livello socioeconomico: le evidenze di associazionecon i fattori socioeconomici risultano inadeguatea causa di un numero insufficiente distudi individuati nel periodo in esame.Esposizione occupazionale: la ricerca bibliograficaha selezionato una metanalisi, otto studimulticentrici e cinque studi singoli. Emergonoevidenze epidemiologiche limitate diassociazione tra l'esposizione occupazionalepaterna a solventi e i difetti del tubo neuralee tra l'esposizione materna pesticidi e le schisioro-facciali.Inquinamento atmosferico: in letteraturasono state selezionate due revisioni sistematichecon metanalisi, due studi multicentrici enove studi singoli. Le evidenze epidemiologicherelative all'associazione tra l'esposizione ainquinanti atmosferici e il rischio di AC sonoda considerarsi ancora limitate.CONCLUSIONIPer i futuri studi epidemiologici sono auspicabilimigliori metodi di valutazione dell'esposizione,in particolare misure o modelli spazialipiù accurati, una definizione standardizzatadei casi, un campione più ampio e un controllopiù accurato dei fattori confondenti principalio presunti.
Environmental and individual exposure and the risk of congenital anomalies: a review of recent epidemiological evidence
Silvia Baldacci
;Francesca Gorini;Michele Santoro;Anna Pierini;Fabrizio Minichilli;Fabrizio Bianchi
2018
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Congenital anomalies (CAs) represent one ofthe main cause of foetal death, infant mortalityand morbidity, and long-term disability.CAs have been object of systematic registrationactivity for a long-time in manygeographical areas in Europe and worldwide.CAs are often associated with disabilities ofdifferent types and severity, including the developedCountries worldwide. According tothe World Health Organization (WHO), eachyear approximately 3,2 million of childrenworldwide are born with a CA and approximately300,000 newborns with a diagnosis ofbirth defect die within the first 28 days of life.In Europe, CAs are the leading cause of perinatalmortality: the European Surveillanceof Congenital Anomalies (EUROCAT) networkestimated a perinatal mortality associatedwith CAs of 9.2 per 10,000 births in2008-2012. In Italy, the Ministry of Health estimatesthat, on the average of 500,000 birthseach year, about 25,000 present at least oneCA. Moreover, approximately 25% of infantmortality is due to CAs and about 50%of infant mortality is attributable to perinatalmorbidity, almost always of prenatal origin.Regarding long-term survival, a recent populationstudy conducted between 1985 and2003 in the UK estimated a 20.5-year survivalof 85.5% of children born with at least oneCA. According to the Centre for Disease Controland Prevention, approximately 3.3% oflive births in the United States have a severebirth defect. Since CAs represent a significantpublic health issue, an effective primary preventionstrategy should be a priority for publicpolicies and healthcare system.Regarding aetiology, although in many casesthe cause is still unknown, it has been hypothesizedthat CAs may be developed duringthe first trimester of pregnancy as a result ofhereditary polygenic defects or of a gene-environmentinteraction. The aetiology is predominantlymultifactorial, caused by complexinteractions between genes and environment,which modify the normal embryo-foetal development,especially during the organogenesisphase.In particular, environmental factors (e.g.,chemical toxicants, infection agents, maternaldisease, and exogenous factors) can havepreconceptional mutagenic action, postconceptionalteratogenic effects, periconceptionalendocrine disruption or epigenetic action.Regarding genetic causes, there are geneticchromosomalaberrations or dysgeneses. Furthermore,socioeconomic factors affect reproductivehealth by differentiating the exposureto the other risk factors as well as the access toprevention measures.In recent years, the importance of the environmentas a major factor of reproductive risk hasbeen highlighted.An individual may be exposed to pollutantspresent in the workplace and the populationmay be exposed to multiple sources of environmentalcontamination of water, soil, andair matrices. Pregnant women and the developingfoetus are particularly sensitive to the effectsof environmental exposure.OBJECTIVEThe aim of the present working paper is toproduce an updated review of the epidemiologicalevidence on the risk of CAs associatedwith environmental exposures, socioeconomic,and main individual risk factors, such ascigarette smoking and alcohol consumption,according to the approach proposed by Pirastuet al. 2010 in the framework of the SENTIERIProject (the Italian Epidemiological Studyof Residents in National Priority ContaminatedSites).DESIGN AND METHODSLiterature search was carried out in PubMed,following the SENTIERI project criteria toevaluate evidence, by selecting articles in Englishor Italian language published from 2011 to2016 regarding human studies. For this review,descriptive and analytical epidemiological studies(cohort, case-control, cross-sectional, andecological), systematic reviews, and metanalysesreporting association estimates between theoutcome and at least one of the risk factors wereselected.As in Pirastu et al., the sources of environmentalexposure have been classified intofour macrocategories: industries, mines, landfills,and incinerators. The sources of individualexposure considered were: active andpassive cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption,socioeconomic status (SES), occupationaland environmental exposures relatedto air pollutants from vehicular traffic only.The obtained results were assessed accordingto the evaluation criteria on the epidemiologicalevidence related to the association betweenthe outcome and exposures predefined andpublished by the SENTIERI working group(WG). For the evidence assessment, the SENTIERIWG criteria favoured firstly primarysources and quantitative metanalyses, secondly,consistency among sources. The evaluationof the epidemiological evidence for the associationbetween outcome and the exposure hasbeen classified into three categories: sufficient(S), limited (L), inadequate (I).RESULTSIndustries: during the period under review,six single studies evaluating the associationbetween industrial sites exposure and therisk of CAs were found. The epidemiologicalevidence of association between outcomeand exposure has been considered limited.Mines: from the bibliographic research, threesingle studies investigating possible cause-effectrelationship between maternal residentialproximity to mines and the risk of CAs havebeen collected providing inadequate epidemiologicalevidence.Landfills: during the period under review, onesystematic review and one literature review evaluatingthe causal associations between maternalresidential proximity to landfills and CAs wereidentified. The epidemiological evidence is limitedand concerns almost exclusively sites containingindustrial or hazardous waste.Incinerators: a systematic review has been selected;it concludes that the evidence for the associationbetween maternal residential proximityto incinerators and CAs are inadequate.Cigarette smoking: the literature search identifiedeight systematic reviews with metanalysis,five multicentre studies, and ten singlestudies assessing the causal association betweenmaternal and/or paternal exposure to smokingand the risk of CAs in the offspring providingsufficient evidence for a causal associationbetween maternal exposure to cigarette smokeand the risk of congenital heart defects, oro-facialclefts, neural tube defects, and gastrointestinalmalformations.Alcohol: three systematic reviews with metanalysis,two metanalyses, one multicentrestudy, and four single studies were collectedfor the period under review. The acquiredliterature has provided limited epidemiologicalevidence for associations between alcoholconsumption and CAs in the nervous system,particularly for anencephaly and spina bifida.Socioeconomic status: the evidence of an associationwith socioeconomic factors was inadequatedue to an insufficient number ofstudies selected during the period under consideration.Occupational exposure: the literature searchcollected one metanalysis, eight multicentrestudies, and five single studies. The epidemiologicalevidence for associations between paternaloccupational exposure to solvents and neuraltube defects and between maternal pesticide exposureand gold-facial clefts were judged limited.Air pollution: two systematic reviews withmetanalyses, two multicentre studies, and ninesingle studies were selected by literature search;the epidemiological evidence for a causal associationbetween air pollutants exposure and therisk of CAs is still to be considered limited.CONCLUSIONSFor future epidemiological studies, a better exposureassessment, using in particular moreaccurate spatial measurements or models, astandardized case definition, a larger sampleand more accurate control of the recognized orpresumed confounding variables are needed.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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