Urban Climate and Health: Two Strictly Connected Topics in the History of Meteorology

In the history of meteorology, urban climate and health were strictly related to each other. After the discovery of the first liquid-in-glass thermometer (1641) able to provide accurate and repeatable readings, the foundation of obser- vational Networks favored the standardization of instruments, thermometric scales, and observational practices, making possible the confront of readings. In the ear- liest instrumental period (1654–1769) beginning with the Medici Network, only a few instruments were weatherproof, and most of the instruments were suitable for indoor use, mostly in urban environments. This fact favored health and occupational medicine studies. The mature instrumental period (1770–1859) began with the Soci- etas Meteorologica Palatina, Mannheim, when outdoor exposition was possible. This period gave a strong impulse to studies concerning agriculture and epidemics. The modern Meteorology (1860–today) began with permanent international cooperation. Weather observations were strictly standardized all over the world, for climate and forecasting purposes. Urban climate, healthy environments, monument conservation, and other applied fields were developed as new disciplines.