On understanding mountainous carbonate basins of the Mediterranean using parsimonious modeling solutions

The study aims to demonstrate that an effective so- lution can be implemented for modeling complex carbonate basins, in the situation of limited data availability. Consider- ing the alternative modeling approaches under circumstances of data shortage is more significant knowing the vulnera- bility and effectiveness of these kinds of basins to drought and climate change conditions. In this regard, a hybrid ap- proach that combines time series analysis and reservoir mod- eling is proposed to describe behavior in carbonate basins. Time series analysis estimates the contributing area and re- sponse time of the fractured carbonate system beyond the catchment’s hydrographic boundaries. The results obtained align with previous literature-based field surveys. This infor- mation is then used to develop a conceptual reservoir system using the GEOframe modeling system. The model is vali- dated using in situ discharge observations and Earth observa- tions (EO) data on evapotranspiration and snow. Model relia- bility is assessed using traditional goodness of fit indicators, hydrological signatures, and a novel statistical method based on empirical conditional probability. This approach enables detailed analysis and investigation of water budget compo- nents in Mediterranean carbonate catchments, highlighting their response to significant precipitation deficits. Overall, our results demonstrate that flows from carbonate rock areas outside the hydrographic boundaries significantly impact the water budget of the upper Nera River. The stor- age capacity of the carbonate basin plays a crucial role in sustaining river discharge during drought years. In a single dry year, meteorological drought is considerably attenuated while in subsequent dry years, it is slightly intensified. Multi- year droughts result in slower recovery due to the time re- quired for precipitation to replenish the depleted storage that supported river discharge in previous dry years. This unique behavior makes these basins particularly vulnerable to the more severe and frequent drought episodes expected under future climate change