Multidimensional conservation gaps and indications in seahorses

Seahorses (Hippocampus spp.) are flagship animals inspiring numerous conservation programs. On the basis of our knowledge, no study has integrated information on conservation status, including trends in abundance, diversity, and threats, hindering seahorses’ worldwide effective management. Here, we bridge these gaps by taking advantage of the available geographic, ecological, and genomic data on the Hippocampus species at a global scale and present the most comprehensive study of the seahorses’ conservation status to date. Specifically, we explore species distributions and perform ecological niche modeling, phylogenomic mapping, comparative genomic applications, and conservation gap analyses. We consider their evolutionary history and genomic erosion, including genetic load, which have been largely disregarded by current conservation policies. We investigate the degree and type of protective measures currently granted to seahorses and the biological and ecological factors that are contributing to their existing and future extinction risk. Our results raise questions on whether the current conservation indicators and practices are effective in preserving the present diversity and function of these iconic fishes, as well as their future evolutionary potential and ecological resilience. These insights provide a broad, more complete picture of the status and trends of seahorses and inform successful conservation initiatives.