Finger-tracking captures distinct cognitive signatures in L1 vs. L2 reading

Introduction: Predictive and integrative mechanisms play a central role in real-time language comprehension. Understanding how native (L1) and non-native (L2) readers process linguistic information in real time is central to psycholinguistic research. While eye-tracking and event-related potentials (ERPs) have long provided insights into predictive and integrative mechanisms, behavioural methods with fine-grained temporal resolution remain comparatively limited. This study introduces a finger-tracking paradigm as a novel, fine-grained method for capturing real-time reading behaviour as participants trace sentences on a touchscreen. Methods: Two groups of young adult participants – native English speakers (L1) and upper-intermediate English L2 learners – read sentences containing either semantic or morphosyntactic violations, or well-formed control sentences. Tracking speed were analysed both at the token (whole word) and symbol (within-word position) levels. Results: L1 readers were overall faster than L2 readers and exhibited stronger sensitivity to linguistic anomalies, with modulation of tracking speed during violation processing. In contrast, L2 readers showed a reduced andmore gradual sensitivity to violations, consistent with differences in the temporal dynamics of processing across the two groups. Discussion: In line with neurocognitive and eye-tracking evidence, these findings suggest that L1 reading is supported by rapidly deployed predictive mechanisms that are promptly disrupted by violations, whereas L2 reading is characterised by more incremental integration and reduced anticipatory processing. Overall, finger-tracking emerges as a sensitive, fine-grained behavioural method for studying real-time language processing, revealing distinct cognitive signatures in L1 and L2 reading.