Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) is a pseudocereal of Andean origin that is becoming more and more popular also in Europe, Asia and the United States of America because is a good source of different nutrients, rich in antioxidants compounds and it offers an alternative to classical cereals in celiac diet because its seeds are gluten-free. Concerning its employment in food application, quinoa-derived products have been successfully employed in the preparation of different foods as fat/cream substitutes and to enhance the quality of baked foods. This book aims to review recent advances in the quinoa plant cultivation as well the nutritional properties and effects on human health of quinoa-derived products. Chapter 1 - In the last years consumers manifested a strong interest about quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd., 2n=4x=36 tetraploid). This species originating from south America owes its appeal to two main reasons: the well balanced aminoacidic composition of its around 13% of protein content and the absence of gluten. Such positive features, among many others, suggest quinoa as suitable aliment for celiac, vegan and it is strongly recommended for weaning. The skyrocketing request of such product and the limited production all over the world pushed up its price, suggesting also to our farmers such species as possible and more remunerative alternative to the conventional crops. For these reasons experiments to adapt such crop to the Italian agricultural system were planned and this paper reports results and ideas formulated on this field in ten years of observations. The activity performed spanned from the morphofenological evaluation of different accessions collected all over the world, but all originated from south America, to the evaluation of their agronomical performances both with experimental field trial both with open field test. A particular attention was devoted to the mechanization of the crop and the traits the plants need to show for that purpose. The strategies genetic research should adopt on this crop will be discussed. Chapter 2 - Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) is recognized for its nutritional quality, adaptation to marginal soils and extreme climates, and drought and salinity tolerances. These qualities make quinoa a valuable alternative crop for marginal lands in the Peruvian Coast. However, to achieve economic yield and quality, it is required to use adapted varieties to coastal conditions and know the duration of crops phase development and the cumulative growth degree-days (GDD) for each of them. This knowledge will improve the optimal scheduling of the planting date and the agronomic practices contributing to improve yield and quality. The study was made on three different growing seasons with a wide group of quinoa varieties, collected in different environments, in field conditions at the Peruvian central coast- La Molina. Germination, vegetative development, formation of side shoots (ramification) and inflorescence primordia, inflorescence development, flowering, anthesis, seed development, seed maturation and physiological maturity were described and variation among the genotypes of valley and altiplano ecotypes were observed. The total life cycle of the valley type and Altiplano type during season October 2007 March 2008 had a range of 83 to 190 days and 93 to 122 days; respectively. On season October 2011 - March 2012, the total life cycle of the valley type and Altiplano type had a range of 152 to 203 days and 97 to 176 days; respectively. On season June - December 2013, the total life cycle of the varieties required different GDD, in general associated with the life cycle. Chapter 3 - The changes in the antioxidative capacity and phenolic compounds content in the aerial part of the quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) plant during its growth cycle were analysed. These parameters were evaluated at six progressive morphological stages from the early vegetative to the grain fill stage. The extracts obtained from the early and late vegetative stage were characterized by the highest content of total phenolic compounds. In the first three stages of growth high values of the Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) were determined. The lowest value of ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) was observed in the early vegetative stage. The highest antiradical activity against DPPH radical was noted for extract obtained from late vegetative plants. The profile of phenolic compounds was characterized by the presence of five compounds. Based on UV-DAD spectra, one was described as p-coumaric acid derivative, the other four as flavonols. Chapter 4 - The aim of this study was to determine the nutritional value and content of some bioactive compounds in three Andean native grains: quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), kañiwa (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen) and kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus L.). Six quinoa, one kañiwa and three kiwicha ecotypes were collected in Peru. The proximate composition, dietary fiber, pentosans, total phenolic content, antioxidant capacity, profile of flavonoids, phytosterols, fatty acids and amino acids were determined. Tocopherol, folic acid and some mineral content were also analyzed. All Andean grains had very good composition of essential amino acids, which indicates that they could be used in the nutrition of children and individuals in need of high quality plant proteins. Lysine is the one of the most important amino acids and it is the first limiting amino acid in common cereals. The content of this amino acid in kañiwa and in pink kiwicha samples was especially high. Chapter 5 - Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) belongs to the group of crops that are known as pseudocereals and it is a native of the Andean region. Quinoa has also been used in many countries as a grain, forage or silage crop for animals. Although claims of a nutritionally favorable quality of quinoa seed have been made, only limited information is available on the evolution of the chemical composition in the whole plant at different growth stages. The aim of this review is to highlight the potentialities of quinoa in animal nutrition, that is, for cattle, chickens, pigs, rabbits and laboratory animals, in order to increase the knowledge of this plant, and to encourage its use as an alternative protein and fibre source and as a source of important bioactive components (essential fatty acids, flavonoids, stanols, tocopherols, tocotrienols, carotenoids and squalene). Chapter 6 - Quinoa has a unique amino acid, carbohydrate, lipid, and micronutrient profile, with biological value higher than cereals. The relatively low concentration of antinutritional factors allows the use of quinoa without preliminary treatments, however the removal of the external layer of saponins through washing or mechanical dehulling is required. Overall, fermentation is widely recognized as a tool to improve the nutritional and functional properties of grains, flours and derived processed products, due to the increase of the bioavailability of free amino acids, dietary fibres, minerals, polyphenols and bioactive peptides and the decrease, through microbial metabolism, of the antinutritional compounds impact. Technological, nutritional and sensory quality of quinoa can be improved through lactic acid bacteria fermentation, obtaining fermented ingredients to be used for the fortification of either conventional or novel foods, like wheat-based products. Within this frame, the choice of the appropriate starter culture, which significantly affect the functional, nutritional and sensory properties of the product, is still challenging. Chapter 7 - Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a pseudocereal from the Andean region of Chile, Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia, recognized for its high nutritional value. Some nutritional properties that make quinoa attractive to produce bread are its excellent source of protein, fatty acids, fiber, minerals, vitamins, antioxidants, flavonoids and phenolic compounds, together with its high content of carbohydrates, comparable to wheat. In this context, quinoa is considered an example of functional food, and an interesting ingredient in bread making. Also, quinoa is gluten-free, and, consequently, can be consumed by people who have celiac disease. The industry has already been using quinoa as an ingredient for gluten-free bread. The importance of quinoa for its nutritional aspects makes it a very promising crop. Nowadays, several studies in the scientific literature show the improvement of bread quality, and how the addition of quinoa in a blend with other flours modified quality characteristics of rheological dough properties, texture, and specific volume of bread. The enrichment of the wheat bread with quinoa is an effective solution to improve the antioxidant potential of the final product. Recently, quinoa sourdough fermentation applied to produce bread with acceptable sensory properties, texture, nutritional values and prolonged the bread shelf life. Another application for quinoa is its use in gluten-free bread; this grain improved technological properties such as viscosity, and the amount of 15-20% of quinoa flour produced a good consumer acceptance. Quinoa has also attracted attention due to its hypoglycemic effect. Consequently, gluten-free bread elaborated with quinoa can also contain low glycemic index compared to traditional formulations with starches and rice flour. The use of quinoa in gluten-free bread opens new opportunities to the gluten-free bakery industry, showing possibilities in developing gluten-free bread for a group of the population with special needs, such as people with celiac disease or gluten intolerant, with higher nutritional properties. Chapter 8 - Chenopodium quinoa Willd or quinoa is a pseudocereal from South America that is becoming more and more interesting in Europe, Asia and the United States because it is a good source of different nutrients, it is rich in antioxidants compounds and it offers an alternative to normal cereals in coeliac diet because its seeds are gluten-free. Although a lot of studies focus on the advantage of consuming alternative products rich in fiber, a few studies document the changes that affected food products due to the inclusion of fiber alternatives, such as inulin, a linear fructose polysaccharide with variable degree of polymerization (DP), that also has beneficial effects on human health. Currently, the inulin used is extracted exclusively from chicory roots and is characterized by a DP of about 20 units of fructose. Considerable quantities of inulin are extractable from the roots of Cynara cardunculus L., characterized by a high DP up to 100 units of fructose. We have focused on determining the quality characteristics of cereal-based foods enriched with quinoa flour and inulin with different degree of polymerization in order to obtain new fortified breads and pasta with lowering glicemic index effect. Chapter 9 - The demand for gluten-free products is booming worldwide due to the increase of gluten-related disorders (GRD) and also due to a high number of consumers who are following a gluten-free diet (GFD) without a specific diagnosis needing a gluten withdrawal from the diet. The lack of gluten in products can lead to foods without adequacy on nutritional, sensorial and technological quality aspects. For this reason, some studies have been attempting to develop healthier gluten-free products, considering other aspects of quality (sensory and technological) to help promoting quality of life for people who need to follow the GFD. In this context, quinoa has been studied as a gluten/wheat substitute on gluten-free products. Chapter 10 - Prevalence of adverse reactions to many ingredients has increased the "special foods" market. Among common food related disorders, reaction to cow milk is the most prevalent. Cow milk reactions include allergies and lactose intolerance, reaching almost 80% of the worldwide population's intolerance. There are some milk substitutes in the market, based on cereals, legumes, and nuts or modified cow milk, as lactose-free milk. Some of these products present limitations as milk replacer because of their allergenic potential; some of them present high glycemic or low protein content; and others are not fully accepted by consumers. In this context, quinoa has been studied as milk substitute on dairy products since it presents a good source of protein and low glycemic index. Chapter 11 - Inhibition of microbial activity in chilled fish was investigated. For it, an aqueous/ethanolic saponin-free quinoa extract was added to the icing system and applied to lean (megrim, Lepidorhombus whiffiagonis; 0.03 and 0.12 g lyophilized quinoa L-1 icing solution) and fatty (Atlantic chub mackerel, Scomber colias; 0.05 and 0.20 g lyophilized quinoa L-1 icing solution) fish. Microbial development was monitored for a 13-day chilled storage period by microbial and chemical indices. An inhibitory effect (p < 0.05) of the quinoa extracts present in the icing systems on microbial development in megrim (aerobe counts, pH and free fatty acid value) and mackerel (aerobe, psychrotroph, proteolytic and lipolytic counts; pH and free fatty acid values) was observed when considering the most concentrated presence of quinoa in the icing system. A novel icing system is proposed to obtain improvement in the quality of both lean and fatty fish species during commercialization under chilled conditions. Chapter 12 - Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is an annual herbaceous plant species of the Chenopodiaceae family. It can adapt to different types of soil and climatic conditions. Young leaves, besides grains, are used as human food. Quinoa was a major food crop of the pre-Columbian cultures in Latin America for more than 4000 years. It is a pseudocereal crop, a dicotyledon plant looks like a grain, but not a member of the grass family. Quinoa grains are naturally gluten-free, low in sodium and rich in fiber and protein. Quinoa proteins contain all nine essential amino acids making it a complete-protein source, therefore they can replace animal proteins in the human diet. Moreover, quinoa has vitamins, essential fatty acids (linoleic and linolenic acid), saponins, phytosterols, phytoecdysteroids, peptides, flavonoids, phenolic acids and betaines. Several different beneficial effects are ascribed to quinoa, among these: immunoadjuvant, prebiotic, hypocholesterolemic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory effect and cancer reduction activity.
Quinoa: Cultivation, Nutritional Properties and Effects on Health
PEIRETTI PG;GAI F
2019
Abstract
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) is a pseudocereal of Andean origin that is becoming more and more popular also in Europe, Asia and the United States of America because is a good source of different nutrients, rich in antioxidants compounds and it offers an alternative to classical cereals in celiac diet because its seeds are gluten-free. Concerning its employment in food application, quinoa-derived products have been successfully employed in the preparation of different foods as fat/cream substitutes and to enhance the quality of baked foods. This book aims to review recent advances in the quinoa plant cultivation as well the nutritional properties and effects on human health of quinoa-derived products. Chapter 1 - In the last years consumers manifested a strong interest about quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd., 2n=4x=36 tetraploid). This species originating from south America owes its appeal to two main reasons: the well balanced aminoacidic composition of its around 13% of protein content and the absence of gluten. Such positive features, among many others, suggest quinoa as suitable aliment for celiac, vegan and it is strongly recommended for weaning. The skyrocketing request of such product and the limited production all over the world pushed up its price, suggesting also to our farmers such species as possible and more remunerative alternative to the conventional crops. For these reasons experiments to adapt such crop to the Italian agricultural system were planned and this paper reports results and ideas formulated on this field in ten years of observations. The activity performed spanned from the morphofenological evaluation of different accessions collected all over the world, but all originated from south America, to the evaluation of their agronomical performances both with experimental field trial both with open field test. A particular attention was devoted to the mechanization of the crop and the traits the plants need to show for that purpose. The strategies genetic research should adopt on this crop will be discussed. Chapter 2 - Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) is recognized for its nutritional quality, adaptation to marginal soils and extreme climates, and drought and salinity tolerances. These qualities make quinoa a valuable alternative crop for marginal lands in the Peruvian Coast. However, to achieve economic yield and quality, it is required to use adapted varieties to coastal conditions and know the duration of crops phase development and the cumulative growth degree-days (GDD) for each of them. This knowledge will improve the optimal scheduling of the planting date and the agronomic practices contributing to improve yield and quality. The study was made on three different growing seasons with a wide group of quinoa varieties, collected in different environments, in field conditions at the Peruvian central coast- La Molina. Germination, vegetative development, formation of side shoots (ramification) and inflorescence primordia, inflorescence development, flowering, anthesis, seed development, seed maturation and physiological maturity were described and variation among the genotypes of valley and altiplano ecotypes were observed. The total life cycle of the valley type and Altiplano type during season October 2007 March 2008 had a range of 83 to 190 days and 93 to 122 days; respectively. On season October 2011 - March 2012, the total life cycle of the valley type and Altiplano type had a range of 152 to 203 days and 97 to 176 days; respectively. On season June - December 2013, the total life cycle of the varieties required different GDD, in general associated with the life cycle. Chapter 3 - The changes in the antioxidative capacity and phenolic compounds content in the aerial part of the quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) plant during its growth cycle were analysed. These parameters were evaluated at six progressive morphological stages from the early vegetative to the grain fill stage. The extracts obtained from the early and late vegetative stage were characterized by the highest content of total phenolic compounds. In the first three stages of growth high values of the Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) were determined. The lowest value of ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) was observed in the early vegetative stage. The highest antiradical activity against DPPH radical was noted for extract obtained from late vegetative plants. The profile of phenolic compounds was characterized by the presence of five compounds. Based on UV-DAD spectra, one was described as p-coumaric acid derivative, the other four as flavonols. Chapter 4 - The aim of this study was to determine the nutritional value and content of some bioactive compounds in three Andean native grains: quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), kañiwa (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen) and kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus L.). Six quinoa, one kañiwa and three kiwicha ecotypes were collected in Peru. The proximate composition, dietary fiber, pentosans, total phenolic content, antioxidant capacity, profile of flavonoids, phytosterols, fatty acids and amino acids were determined. Tocopherol, folic acid and some mineral content were also analyzed. All Andean grains had very good composition of essential amino acids, which indicates that they could be used in the nutrition of children and individuals in need of high quality plant proteins. Lysine is the one of the most important amino acids and it is the first limiting amino acid in common cereals. The content of this amino acid in kañiwa and in pink kiwicha samples was especially high. Chapter 5 - Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) belongs to the group of crops that are known as pseudocereals and it is a native of the Andean region. Quinoa has also been used in many countries as a grain, forage or silage crop for animals. Although claims of a nutritionally favorable quality of quinoa seed have been made, only limited information is available on the evolution of the chemical composition in the whole plant at different growth stages. The aim of this review is to highlight the potentialities of quinoa in animal nutrition, that is, for cattle, chickens, pigs, rabbits and laboratory animals, in order to increase the knowledge of this plant, and to encourage its use as an alternative protein and fibre source and as a source of important bioactive components (essential fatty acids, flavonoids, stanols, tocopherols, tocotrienols, carotenoids and squalene). Chapter 6 - Quinoa has a unique amino acid, carbohydrate, lipid, and micronutrient profile, with biological value higher than cereals. The relatively low concentration of antinutritional factors allows the use of quinoa without preliminary treatments, however the removal of the external layer of saponins through washing or mechanical dehulling is required. Overall, fermentation is widely recognized as a tool to improve the nutritional and functional properties of grains, flours and derived processed products, due to the increase of the bioavailability of free amino acids, dietary fibres, minerals, polyphenols and bioactive peptides and the decrease, through microbial metabolism, of the antinutritional compounds impact. Technological, nutritional and sensory quality of quinoa can be improved through lactic acid bacteria fermentation, obtaining fermented ingredients to be used for the fortification of either conventional or novel foods, like wheat-based products. Within this frame, the choice of the appropriate starter culture, which significantly affect the functional, nutritional and sensory properties of the product, is still challenging. Chapter 7 - Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a pseudocereal from the Andean region of Chile, Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia, recognized for its high nutritional value. Some nutritional properties that make quinoa attractive to produce bread are its excellent source of protein, fatty acids, fiber, minerals, vitamins, antioxidants, flavonoids and phenolic compounds, together with its high content of carbohydrates, comparable to wheat. In this context, quinoa is considered an example of functional food, and an interesting ingredient in bread making. Also, quinoa is gluten-free, and, consequently, can be consumed by people who have celiac disease. The industry has already been using quinoa as an ingredient for gluten-free bread. The importance of quinoa for its nutritional aspects makes it a very promising crop. Nowadays, several studies in the scientific literature show the improvement of bread quality, and how the addition of quinoa in a blend with other flours modified quality characteristics of rheological dough properties, texture, and specific volume of bread. The enrichment of the wheat bread with quinoa is an effective solution to improve the antioxidant potential of the final product. Recently, quinoa sourdough fermentation applied to produce bread with acceptable sensory properties, texture, nutritional values and prolonged the bread shelf life. Another application for quinoa is its use in gluten-free bread; this grain improved technological properties such as viscosity, and the amount of 15-20% of quinoa flour produced a good consumer acceptance. Quinoa has also attracted attention due to its hypoglycemic effect. Consequently, gluten-free bread elaborated with quinoa can also contain low glycemic index compared to traditional formulations with starches and rice flour. The use of quinoa in gluten-free bread opens new opportunities to the gluten-free bakery industry, showing possibilities in developing gluten-free bread for a group of the population with special needs, such as people with celiac disease or gluten intolerant, with higher nutritional properties. Chapter 8 - Chenopodium quinoa Willd or quinoa is a pseudocereal from South America that is becoming more and more interesting in Europe, Asia and the United States because it is a good source of different nutrients, it is rich in antioxidants compounds and it offers an alternative to normal cereals in coeliac diet because its seeds are gluten-free. Although a lot of studies focus on the advantage of consuming alternative products rich in fiber, a few studies document the changes that affected food products due to the inclusion of fiber alternatives, such as inulin, a linear fructose polysaccharide with variable degree of polymerization (DP), that also has beneficial effects on human health. Currently, the inulin used is extracted exclusively from chicory roots and is characterized by a DP of about 20 units of fructose. Considerable quantities of inulin are extractable from the roots of Cynara cardunculus L., characterized by a high DP up to 100 units of fructose. We have focused on determining the quality characteristics of cereal-based foods enriched with quinoa flour and inulin with different degree of polymerization in order to obtain new fortified breads and pasta with lowering glicemic index effect. Chapter 9 - The demand for gluten-free products is booming worldwide due to the increase of gluten-related disorders (GRD) and also due to a high number of consumers who are following a gluten-free diet (GFD) without a specific diagnosis needing a gluten withdrawal from the diet. The lack of gluten in products can lead to foods without adequacy on nutritional, sensorial and technological quality aspects. For this reason, some studies have been attempting to develop healthier gluten-free products, considering other aspects of quality (sensory and technological) to help promoting quality of life for people who need to follow the GFD. In this context, quinoa has been studied as a gluten/wheat substitute on gluten-free products. Chapter 10 - Prevalence of adverse reactions to many ingredients has increased the "special foods" market. Among common food related disorders, reaction to cow milk is the most prevalent. Cow milk reactions include allergies and lactose intolerance, reaching almost 80% of the worldwide population's intolerance. There are some milk substitutes in the market, based on cereals, legumes, and nuts or modified cow milk, as lactose-free milk. Some of these products present limitations as milk replacer because of their allergenic potential; some of them present high glycemic or low protein content; and others are not fully accepted by consumers. In this context, quinoa has been studied as milk substitute on dairy products since it presents a good source of protein and low glycemic index. Chapter 11 - Inhibition of microbial activity in chilled fish was investigated. For it, an aqueous/ethanolic saponin-free quinoa extract was added to the icing system and applied to lean (megrim, Lepidorhombus whiffiagonis; 0.03 and 0.12 g lyophilized quinoa L-1 icing solution) and fatty (Atlantic chub mackerel, Scomber colias; 0.05 and 0.20 g lyophilized quinoa L-1 icing solution) fish. Microbial development was monitored for a 13-day chilled storage period by microbial and chemical indices. An inhibitory effect (p < 0.05) of the quinoa extracts present in the icing systems on microbial development in megrim (aerobe counts, pH and free fatty acid value) and mackerel (aerobe, psychrotroph, proteolytic and lipolytic counts; pH and free fatty acid values) was observed when considering the most concentrated presence of quinoa in the icing system. A novel icing system is proposed to obtain improvement in the quality of both lean and fatty fish species during commercialization under chilled conditions. Chapter 12 - Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is an annual herbaceous plant species of the Chenopodiaceae family. It can adapt to different types of soil and climatic conditions. Young leaves, besides grains, are used as human food. Quinoa was a major food crop of the pre-Columbian cultures in Latin America for more than 4000 years. It is a pseudocereal crop, a dicotyledon plant looks like a grain, but not a member of the grass family. Quinoa grains are naturally gluten-free, low in sodium and rich in fiber and protein. Quinoa proteins contain all nine essential amino acids making it a complete-protein source, therefore they can replace animal proteins in the human diet. Moreover, quinoa has vitamins, essential fatty acids (linoleic and linolenic acid), saponins, phytosterols, phytoecdysteroids, peptides, flavonoids, phenolic acids and betaines. Several different beneficial effects are ascribed to quinoa, among these: immunoadjuvant, prebiotic, hypocholesterolemic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory effect and cancer reduction activity.I documenti in IRIS sono protetti da copyright e tutti i diritti sono riservati, salvo diversa indicazione.
